The Human Genome Project: The Future of Medicine :: Argumentative Persuasive Papers

The Human Genome Project: The Future of Medicine In the last half century, medicine has been rapidly progressing, finding cures for many diseases, developing new surgical techniques, developing vaccines, and generally improving the overall health and life expectancy of the average person. Instead of living to their forties, it is commonplace for people to live to seventy five and beyond. Medical research is constantly searching for ways to make people healthier and to keep them that way. New cancer and AIDS research comprises a huge portion of modern day medicine. However, the discoveries and breakthroughs that such projects have produced have been few and far between. According to many, we are no closer to finding an actual cure for either ailment than we were ten years ago. However, all is not lost. There is a way in which we can begin to regain some of the medical stride which we have lost. The way to do this is not by scouring the rainforests to try to make exotic drugs, nor is it new chemotherapy techniques or radiation treatm ents. This new way is based in our cells themselves, in understanding how we work, and knowing what our biological determinants are. To understand how our immune system fights disease, we must first understand what causes it. We must know our predisposition to certain kinds of ailments. We must know our genes. Knowing our genes is the fundamental concept behind the most exciting scientific endeavor of the past decade, the Human Genome Project. This project’s goal is to complete a comprehensive map of the human genome by the year 2003, one which illustrates the precise locations of every single gene in all twenty-three pairs of human chromosomes, along with the functions of these genes. The term gene is defined as being "one of many discrete units of hereditary information located on the chromosomes and consisting of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)." (Campbell, G-9) All these units put together comprise the genome. Many ailments that we suffer from are products of flawed genes. Cystic Fibrosis is the result of one such flaw. In 1989, biologists isolated the gene which causes this incurable ailment, and we have progressed very far in our search for a cure. Other ailments whose genetic causes have been isolated include breast cancer (Waldholz, B6), Alzheimer’s (OMIM Entry 104311), Tay Sachs (JUF News, 45), and Huntington’s (Brownlee, 580), as well as Diabetes (Maugh, 8), and many, many more.

Ethics and Philosophy of Social Research Essay

The social research shares with all scientific endeavours the necessity to balance scientific zeal with other ethical values that derive from the social context in which all social research takes place. To some degree, the research ideal of objectivity unavoidably conflicts with humanistic values. Therefore, all researchers must at some time come to grips with this conflict. The issue, however, is especially crucial for social researchers because the focus of their research is the behaviour of other people. Thus, not only the goals of the social research but the very process of data collection is subject to ethical conflicts. The paper contains analysis—the synthesis of research results across a large number of studies—and on the social responsibility and ethical requirements of the social research. The ethical issues which researchers face in their day-to-day study are comparatively consistent across methods. The ethical principles adopted by researchers should govern their actions, whether they take place in field or laboratory environment. To make this point most strongly, this paper contains a separate section, which should serve as a strong point of reference for the social researcher, rather than providing a series of ethical requirements that are spread thinly throughout the various sections of this paper. These issues include the social and ethical responsibilities and constraints connected with the conduct of social research and advancing the cumulative progress of behavioral and social science through integrating and synthesizing findings from different current investigations. The paper hopes to make clear that social research is a collective enterprise undertaken in the context of ethical values. Main body Ethics in Social Research Ethics of Research Design and Methodology Because the subject matter of the social researcher is human behaviour and the processes that are associated with behaviour, it is unavoidable that researcher interests will conflict sometimes with ethical values placed on the rights of people to privacy and self-determination. The guidelines for social research ethics set by the Social Research Association (SRA) (2003) stress the idea of recruiting participants for research on the basis of informed consent —this means that participation must be freewill and with the participant’s full knowledge of what research will include. However, it is declared that many subjects could not be researched at all if this ideal were entirely met, and that the rights of individuals must be weighed against the possible importance of the research problem. David De Vaus (1996), for example, demonstrated in a verbal conditioning experiment that a full explanation of methods and hypotheses destroyed the phenomenon they were attempting to exa mine. In cases where full explanation of subject cannot be presented, SRA recommends that â€Å"But there should, at least, be clarity about opt-in and opt-out arrangements, about the length and degree of commitment required of respondents, and about the precise goals of the research. Adequate subject de-briefing also seems essential to this last aim.† Thus, the ethical code does not present free from limitations standards that relieve the researcher of important value judgments. Rather, judgments as to the comparative significance of research programmes and researchers’ responsibility for the well-being of their participants are the primary bases of research ethics. Deception in the Laboratory The degree to which participation is entirely voluntary is in many cases disputable, depending on the social and institutional pressures to take part in research that are at times involved. But usually, participants in laboratory experiments at least know that they participate in a research study. Notwithstanding, however, the information provided to participants in laboratory investigations is usually smallest, at best, and often purposely deceptive as to the goals of the research study. To what degree this deception is justified by serving scientific purposes and the potential benefit to human welfare is a matter of considerable debate. Some critics claim that no deception is ever reasonable and that it should not be permitted in the interests of social research (Ortmann & Hertwig 746-747). Most social researchers, however, take a more temperate view, considering that there is an unavoidable compromise between values of entire honesty and informed consent and the possible value of what can be learned from the research itself. Just as the unimportant lie uttered in the interests of tact or politeness is regarded as acceptable when used in the service of good manners, so a little amount of deception may be acceptable in the service of obtaining reliable research data. However, there is also some controversy over whether social researchers have exceeded this adequate minimum in their research (Barnes 320). For some years the practice of deception in laboratory experiments was considered acceptable by most experimenters. However, an article by Herbert Kelman (1967) reflected a growing concern with accepted among many people, and evidently undisputed, use of deception in social research. Kelman’s article argued this practice on both ethical and practical grounds. Ethically, he claimed, any deception disregarded essential norms of respect in the interpersonal relationship that forms between researcher and research participant. Besides, the practice might have extreme methodological implications as participants become less naive and extreme suspiciousness begins to have an effect upon the outcomes of all research. To avoid these problems, Kelman advised that social researchers (a) reduce the unnecessary use of deception, (b) explore ways of counteracting or minimizing its negative consequences when deemed necessary, and (c) develop new methods, such as role playing or simulation techniques, which substitute active participation for deception (Kelman 10-11). Practices of experimenting with these alternative methodologies have been tried, but the results are consisting of conflicting thoughts, at best (Crespi 23). Thus, the general agreement in the social research is that some level of deception is often necessary to produce realistic conditions for testing research hypotheses. However, such deception needs to be justified by the nature and significance of the research question being studied. As James D. Faubion (2005) put it, â€Å"The social researcher whose study may have a good chance of reducing violence or racism or sexism, but who declines to do the study simply because it requires deception, has not solved an ethical problem but only traded one for another† (860). Ethical Issues in Field Research Although much of the discussion about the ethical implications of deception concentrates on laboratory experimentation, study conducted outside the laboratory often considers a number of other ethical issues and concerns. Besides issues associated with consent to participate, researchers also must think over issues of privacy and confidentiality when research data are collected in field surroundings (Boruch 102). Because a main benefit of field research, from a scientific point of view, is the chance of obtaining samples of behaviour under naturally occurring circumstances, it often is beneficial to conduct such research under conditions in which the nature of the research is concealed. Therefore, the participants may not only be mislead regarding the goals of the research, but may even be uninformed that they are the subject of research in the first place. The use of â€Å"frugal† measures highlights this strategy (Ortlieb 2002), but even more traditional methods of data collection, such as the interview or questionnaire, are often conducted in such a manner as to conceal their true goal. Some researchers consider the practice of concealed observation or response elicitation as passable as long as it is limited to in fundamental way â€Å"public† behaviors or settings usually open to public examination. Adam Ashforth (1996), for example, presented a review of settings and behaviours for which concealed research methods have been used. However, there is the question of subjective definitions of what form â€Å"public† behaviours, specifically in urban settings where social norms lead to the probability of anonymity in public surroundings. Because by definition field research includes some act of intervening on the part of the researcher in the stimulus conditions to which the uninformed participants are exposed, ethical question about hidden observation is further difficult to understand because of concern over the nature of such manipulations. Instances of practice of experimenting in field settings comprise systematic variation of the content of applicant briefs sent to potential employers (Ashforth 1996), differential behaviour on the part of salesmen regarding customers (Fairclough 2003) or customers toward salesmen (Fairclough 2003). To some degree these all fall within a â€Å"normal range† of human behaviour in public surroundings, the only difference being their methodical manipulation by the researcher. Yet, collecting data about individual behaviour in these cases evidently violates the spirit of â€Å"informed consent, † in particular when researchers conclude it is best not to inform individuals which have been observed even after the fact (Seiber 268). The Regulatory Context of Research Involving Human Participants The preceding discussion of ethical dilemmas is contemplated to present the idea that there are no easy, certain rules for deciding whether a specific research strategy or method is ethical or not. Rather, difficult enough to construct opinion is involved in weighing the possible value of the research against potential stress or other costs to research participants. Ethical decision making includes a cost—benefit analysis rather than the consideration of certain strictures and rules (Alvaro & Crano 13). Much of the responsibility for decision making falls on the individual researcher, but one person alone is not always the best judge of what is of considerable importance and necessary research and what is possibly harmful to participants. Actually, there is good evidence that biases enter into scientists’ evaluations of the quality of their own research (Kimmel 1991). Therefore, the conduct of social research that meets reasonable ethical standards and methods is not just a matter of person’s judgment, it is the law. Almost all social research that is supported by funds or conducted in educational or research institutions that receive funding (of any kind) is subject to regulations concerning the conduct of social research. The primary agency is The Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) which is the UK’s leading research funding and training agency addressing economic and social concerns. ESRC provides certain principles for protecting the welfare and dignity of human participants in research and provides policies and procedures that are required of institutions in which such research is conducted. The ESRC expects that the research it supports will be conducted according to a high ethical standard. This Research Ethics Framework (REF) sets out good ethical practice in UK social research.Although REF is a mandatory aspect of social research which involves human participants, it does not absolve the researcher from any further responsibility for the ethical conduct of his or her research.

Emmet Till Essay - 889 Words

Emmett Till was a young boy who lived in Chicago and was not used to all the racial issues in the South because he did not have to face them until he went to a small town in Mississippi to visit his relatives. He soon realized just how different the South really was. Emmett and a few friends went to a white-owned store, and on the way out he was dared by his friends to whistle at the white lady running the store. Later that day, he was taken from his uncles home by the ladys husband and was shot, beaten, and with a heavy weight tied to his neck, thrown in the Tallahatchie River (Emmett Till and the Impact of the Images, 2004). A few days later Tills body was found in the river. Several hours later, Mamie Till was notified of her sons†¦show more content†¦I was also under the impression that there is a law that says a case must be settled or brought to court within so many years or it is not admissible. Justice to long delayed is justice denied (The Letter from Berham Jail, 1 963). The murder of Emmet Till was a tragedy that effected many people. I do feel that those who had anything to do with the murder should be punished but at this point there has been too much time that has gone by. I try to lookShow MoreRelatedHate Crimes Essay936 Words   |  4 PagesEssay #2: What are the roots of the violence/hate crimes today in our contemporary society? What can we do to reduce them? Explain. The world is full of HATE. What is this word? What makes someone HATE someone else enough to kill or harm another human being? Hate crimes are criminal actions intended to harm or intimidate people because of their race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, or other minority group status. They are also referred to as bias crimes. Hate crimes have been goingRead MoreComing Of Age Throughout Mississippi By Anne Moody1362 Words   |  6 Pages Coming of Age in Mississippi Essay Fredric Stanley HIST 3881 Professor James Conway 7 November 2015 â€Æ' Though we Americans, in all of our efforts, feel as if the day of racism is coming to an end, I feel it is merely evolving into a much more subtle approach. Seeing life through the words of Anne Moody in her book entitled, Coming of Age in Mississippi, shows that racism, even back then, is treated with remedies versus a cure. After the many anti-discrimination legislations passed as well asRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr. : The Start Of The Civil Rights Movement1008 Words   |  5 PagesEssay The Civil Rights movement was a push to expand the rights of African Americans in the United States. It is widely known that Martin Luther King Jr. was the figurehead of this movement he got his start in the Montgomery bus boycotts as he organized and spoke on behalf of the African American community in Montgomery and worked closely with Rosa Parks and other civil rights activists. Although this is where the movement’s most prominent leader got his start, it should not be consideredRead MoreThe Cold War During World War II1760 Words   |  8 PagesEssay One During World War II the United States and the Soviet Union were allies, but by 1950, their relationship had disintegrated and the two nations were engaged in a â€Å"Cold War.† The â€Å"Cold War† occurred due to efforts by both nations after the war to maintain influence in regions like Eastern Europe for the Soviets and Turkey and Greece for the United States, but the â€Å"Cold War† wasn’t limited to these disputes. The â€Å"Cold War† was influenced by many factors on the United States side including theRead MoreRacism Is A Very Affective Problem3039 Words   |  13 Pagesthis essay today, you will learn about many things that happened back in the day that leads up to regular time. Racism is a human rights issue simply because everyone has the right to be treated with respect and racism the lack of respect from others. This is an issue not only in the United States, but in many other countries also. There re countries where they have racism law s, there are many people in these countries that ignore these laws. Racism has a large history in this world and till thisRead MoreAnalysis Of Mill On The Floss By George Eliot2199 Words   |  9 PagesDomesticity: Alienation from the Family in Dickens, Eliot, and Jame) Critics compare Maggie to Tertuis Lydgate who is finding a cord between Latin and English. Maggie’s attraction towards Latin shows her curiosity towards love and mystery. In her essay Habits in George Eliot Mill on the Floss. Kristie Allen explains that Maggie uses animal-human analogy by comparing herself to a bear in a circus show. This highlights that her regular monotonous routine will dull her from social life and enjoying

Universalist Theory Of Universalism - 1237 Words

Universalist theories (moral universalism) are meta-ethical positions that claim that there is a universal ethic that applies to all people regardless of their nationality, religion, sex, race, culture, sexuality, and other distinguishing features (Greenwood and Harris, 2011). Universal ethics refer to a moral system that applies to the entire humanity, transcending personal whims, and culture in the process. The justification for this rises from human nature, which is a shared vulnerability of suffering and demands universal reasoning. It also involves religion mandates and existing moral codes. It contrasts moral relativism, which claims that moral truths are relative to personal, historical, cultural, and social circumstances. There are†¦show more content†¦In the theory of practical rationality, it is the superior part. According to Greenwood and Harris (2011), Thomas Hobbes is also a natural Law theorist. He held that nature has a divine law that binds all human beings like Aquinas. A question that mostly arises in consideration of this ethic is whether there is a difference between divine command ethics and natural law ethics, being that theorists of the latter hold that God is the one that gives them. Nonetheless, some principles make them different. Natural law holds that God gives them, but they are also a result of human reason. They are also naturally authoritative, knowable, and provide the right to the action. Some theorists deny the first premise of the natural law but accept the rest. Among them are Mark Murphy, Alasdair MacIntyre, John Finnis, Philippa Foot, and Michael Moore (Finnis, 2011). They do not believe in the divinity of the law. They argue on the Naturalistic doctrine, which claims that there is a natural order of the world, which human beings should follow. Unlike Aquinas, they believe a person’s search for happiness and their human nature are responsible for rationality and morality, and not duty or external rules. Th ey argue that the laws of conformity and the fact that fundamental good is self-preservation support natural laws, which are morally correct. Indeed, it is a credible argument and worth consideration. Consistency with it is right, while the absence thereof is wrong. The bestShow MoreRelatedThe Doctrine Of Universal Reconciliation1651 Words   |  7 PagesWhile the doctrine of universal reconciliation has indeed been a minority position throughout most of Christian history–albeit not quite two-thousand years!–all one has to do is turn to Augustine, a clear non-Universalist, to see how it was once upon a time a rather popular doctrine. He, in the fifth century, rather dismissively writes: It is quite in vain, then, that some–indeed very many–yield to merely human feelings and deplore the notion of the eternal punishment of the damned and their interminableRead MoreDichotomy Of Universalism And Relativism841 Words   |  4 Pages The Dichotomy of Universalism and Relativism â€Å"A global citizen is someone who identifies with being part of an emerging world community and whose actions contribute to building this community’s values and practices.† According to Global Citizens Initiative, a nonprofit global social enterprise, this is what it means to be a global citizen. 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The overall findings along with article’s strengths and weaknessesRead MoreDoes Language Affect The Way People Think Or Is It The Other Way Around?1458 Words   |  6 PagesLanguage and Linguistics by Rene Dirven, provides two theories: linguistic relativity and universalism. Researchers who believe linguistic relativity claim that language affects the ways in which its respective speakers conceptualize their world. Benjamin Lee Whorf, representative researcher for linguistic relativity, argues that language determines thought, and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories. Universalism, which is a contrasting concept to the linguistic relativityRead MoreThe Unitarian Universalist Meeting House2181 Words   |  9 PagesOn October 12th 2014 I ventured into the Unitarian Universalist meeting house, which is located at 501 South High Street in West Chester, PA. I was greeted at the door by openly gay Reverend Bill Zelazny, who was wearing a tallis-like prayer shawl which was a colorful tapestry with no discernable symbols on it. His head was uncovered. Reverend Bill was very welcoming and agreed to meet with me after the service, which I was invited to stay for. I had never been to a religious service in a denominationRead More Liberalism, Civic Reformism and Democracy Essay2784 Words   |  12 Pagesorder and, more specifically, in the creation of the welfare state after the Second World War. Accordingly, liberalism defines a reformist political program: it is an emancipatory political project by virtue of its struggle for an egalitarian and universalist extension of citizenship rights. This is but a formulation of the modern idea of citizenship, conceived of as a u niversalizable contract of rights. 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Descartes Who Are You - 1051 Words

The Brains SOCRATES: Where am I? Am I finally in heavenly realm? DESCARTES: Who are you? And where are we? SOCRATES: I am Socrates. The last thing I remember is taking hemlock and dying. DESCARTES: Are you for real? I must be dreaming†¦ On a shelf in the lab, lies two vats of formaldehyde, one containing the brain of Socrates, and the other containing the brain of Rene Descartes. The two brains are wired up to each other so that they can communicate with each other about their current situation. As for Socrates, he would wonder if he is finally in heavenly realm, sometimes called â€Å"Platonic Heaven† and I believe that he would be happy about his current situation, not having any senses, or bodily cravings and needs. Because separating†¦show more content†¦At the same time, I do understand that the brain is still the ‘physical’ part of the body, which makes Socrates not happy, but I still believe that he would at least not be upset, because even though the brain is part of the impure ‘body’, it does not have any senses or needs to distract Socrates from focusing on The Forms. And I am assuming that the brain must be dead, it cannot survive by itself without the other organs, which makes more sense that Socrates would be happy because he believed that the death is nothing but the separation of the body and the soul. As for Descartes, I think that he would not be happy because he cannot sense anything. He claimed that he is a ‘thinking thing’. He said, â€Å"A thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses, and that also imagines and senses (Descartes, 20).† From here, we can see that he did not reject the role of the senses and that his senses are part of who he is. And I also think he would not be happy because even though Descartes would agree with Socrates that the body and the soul are two separate substances and that the body is easily deceived by the sense perceptions, and that pure knowledge is an attainable goal, but he didn’t necessarily claimed that it would be only after death, which Socrates did. Descartes believed that it is possible to erase all previously held beliefs and knowledge and let go of the influence of the body causing on our minds. And by doing this, we can pursue the realShow MoreRelatedAn Analysis of Descartes’ First Meditation Essay example1448 Words   |  6 Pages13th, 2012 An Analysis of Descartes’ First Meditation In Descartes’ First Meditation, Descartes’ overall intention is to present the idea that our perceptions and sensations are flawed and should not be trusted entirely. His purpose is to create the greatest possible doubt of our senses. To convey this thought, Descartes has three main arguments in the First Meditation: The dream argument, the deceiving God argument, and the evil demon â€Å"or evil genius†. Descartes’ dream argument argues thatRead MoreDescartes Proof of the Existence of God in Meditation Three Essay1026 Words   |  5 PagesDescartes Proof of the Existence of God in Meditation Three This paper is intended to explain and evaluate Descartes proof for the existence of god in Meditation Three. It shall show the weaknesses in the proof, but also give credit to the strengths in his proof. It will give a background of what Descartes has already accepted as what he truly knows. The paper will also state Descartes two major points for the existence of God and why the points can easily be proven false. The paper willRead MoreDescartes Second Meditation732 Words   |  3 PagesDescartes Second Meditation In Descartes’ Second Meditation the key philosophical idea of â€Å"I think, therefore I am† is introduced and thus begins a new age in western philosophy. Some of the arguments Descartes provide in order to support his claims are that in order to doubt anything, you must be able to think and if you think, you exist. Descartes brings up the point that there may be no physical world, along with that thought comes the doubt of anything else being real, which againRead MoreDescartes Cosmological And Ontological Arguments Are Well1455 Words   |  6 Pages Descartes Cosmological and Ontological arguments are well organized and are perceived as valid. However, these arguments may be found valid only if we follow the rules of Descartes premises through deductive reasoning. The soundness of Descartes Ontological and Cosmological arguments are questioned in this paper as I argue against Descartes axioms. Descartes bases his proofs of God on specific propositions and his own claims of knowledge. The lack of proof behind his premises is why I cannot exceptRead MoreDescartes Meditation Iii1297 Words   |  6 PagesPhilosophy Descartes tries to prove the existence of God in the third meditation. He does this by coming up with several premises that eventually add up to a solid argument. First, I will explain why Descartes ask the question, does god exist? And why does Descartes think he needs such and argument at this point in the text. Secondly, I will explain, in detail, the arguments that Descartes makes and how he comes to the conclusion that God does exist. Next, I will debate some of Descartes premisesRead MoreJohn Locke And Rene Descartes Essay1444 Words   |  6 PagesWho are you? What defines who you are? Why makes you who you are? What is your personal identity? Have you ever sat around pondering the meaning of life, or maybe just your life? Have you asked yourself any of these questions? What were your answers? These are questions that people have been trying to answer since the beginning of time, before me and you were ever born or thought of. People live their whole lives trying to figure out exactly who they are and what their purpose is in life. In theRead MoreEssay on Mediations of First Philosophy by Descartes1296 Words   |  6 PagesMediations of First Philosophy by Descartes In the â€Å"Mediations of First Philosophy† Descartes tries to prove the existence of God in the third meditation. He does this by coming up with several premises that eventually add up to a solid argument. First, I will explain why Descartes ask the question, does god exist? And why does Descartes think he needs such and argument at this point in the text. Secondly, I will explain, in detail, the arguments that Descartes makes and how he comes to the conclusionRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1712 Words   |  7 PagesDescartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) contains six Meditations. In the first two of these Descartes addresses doubt and certainty. By the end of the second Meditation Descartes establishes the possibility of certainty by concluding that he is a â€Å"thinking thing† and that this is beyond doubt. Having established the possibility of certainty, Descartes attempts to prove the existence of God. The argument he present s in the Third Meditation for the existence of God has been nicknamed theRead MoreInnate Ideas Essay653 Words   |  3 Pagesin philosophy. Sometimes, these philosophers agree on ideas or sometimes they make their own assumptions. There are two philosophers who had different ideas concerning where innate ideas come from and how we get these types of ideas. 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Gender and Educational Achievement Free Essays

Gender and Educational Achievement a) Explain what is meant by â€Å"peer-group status†. (2 Marks) Peer-group status is being seen as â€Å"big† or important in the eyes of friends and other people around you. b) Suggest three ways in which teaching might be altered to favour boys. We will write a custom essay sample on Gender and Educational Achievement or any similar topic only for you Order Now (6 Marks) Three ways in which teaching can be altered to favour boys are:- * Include practical work to make sure they understand the work. offering extra credit or chances unequally between males and females, favouring the males * School Topics that the school teaches such as Maths, Design Technology, Physical Education and many more are more male based subjects. c) Outline some of the factors outside the education system that have affected gender differences in school. (12 Marks) There are many factors outside the school education system that have affected gender differences in school. Firstly it can be said that parents expect more from their children to be hardworking, have responsible over their actions and behaviour towards others, to be tidy and neat. This is known as Parental Aspiration. Compared to girls, boys are more Laddish behaved which leads them to disrespect teachers in schools. Furthermore peer pressure can also affect gender difference in school; this is suggested in some case where boys impress their friends by acting like a â€Å"Cool† person, in the end not paying attention in class or to their studies. Whereas most girls are more likely to achieve better in their studies, this is more likely they stay away bad influenced people. According to Francis (2000) â€Å"boys no longer likely to consider themselves more able than girls†, this is considered to the subject choices that boys undertake, which do not require academic success, however girls think more realistic which do require academic success such as becoming an Engineer or a teacher, this makes them seem to work harder in school’s to go to University and to pursue the profession job. Additionally other external factors that may affect gender difference in school are crises in masculinity where women and males have equal rights to work and more women get into the well-paid jobs. d) Using information from Items A and B and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations of why girls achieve better results than boys. (20 Marks) Throughout the past years girls are improving and getting better results than boys. Reasons behind these achievements that explain are â€Å"Soft and hard subjects†, parental aspiration, girls aim higher and many more reason. These examples give some idea of why the girls perform better than boys. In this essay I am going to compare on why girls achieve better results than boys. For the past many years studies have been conducted to find out the girls achievements are better than boys, also in the recent studies have been concluded as girls and young women’s attitudes towards education, marriage and work have been changed over the years. Sue Sharpe who is a sociologist conducted a study on working-class girls in London and their attitudes towards education. Sue Sharpe compared the attitudes of working-class girls in London schools in the early 1970’s and 1990’s. She found that the 1990’s girls were more confident, more assertive, more ambitious and more committed to gender equality. Sharpe found that the main priorities of the 1970’s girls were ‘love, marriage, husbands and children’. By 1990’s this had changed to ‘job, career and being able to support them with education being the main route to a good job. In 1994, Sue Sharpe found that girls were increasingly wary of marriage. They had seen adult relationships break up around them, and had seen women coping alone, in a ‘man’s world’. Girls were more concerned with standing on their own two feet and were more likely to see education as a means to financial independence. Furthermore both male and female parents expect more from them in their studies; however boys now tend drift more into large peer groups and involve into gang violence, this makes the boys seem as poorly behaved in school and underachieve in their studies. On the other hand girls are more organised and meet their deadline for their given coursework. Additionally a recognition that girls were put off by what were traditionally seen as â€Å"boys subjects† or also known as hard subject such as maths, technology, physics and chemistry. This led to the introduction of equal opportunity initiatives such as Girls into Science and Technology. But Girls tend to take soft subject for A- level such as Biology, Sociology, textiles and many more, this is because they more easy subject to do. A recent report was on the new which was regarding less than 50% girls are undertaking the subject physics, which is known as a â€Å"manly subject† for A-level. In addition early research on peer-group status states that the development of antischool subculture that tended to be developed by some working-class boys, particularly those placed in lower streams, bands and sets. Studies by Hargreaves (1967) and Willis (1977), for example, showed how such boys were either fatalistic in accepting school failure as inevitable and so developed anti-educational coping strategies, or sought to compensate for status frustration by gaining credibility in the eyes of their peers. To conclude girls in school achieve higher than boys in school, this is because to some of the factors in school and out of school which may affect many boys with their studies and their behaviour. Overall girls seem to be more able to concentrate in class whereas boys are more practical type and choose hard subjects such as physics, maths, Physical Education and many more. How to cite Gender and Educational Achievement, Papers

How does Steinbeck make use of the natural setting in of mice and men free essay sample

The Brush by the Salinas River is one of the most important locations in the entire novel. Steinbeck creates a beautiful and natural setting by his use of figurative language. â€Å"Willows fresh and green with every spring† and â€Å"leaves lie deep and so crisp† create an image in the mind of the reader that evokes a calm and peaceful mood. Steinbeck then uses the setting to introduce the two main protagonists. The arrival of the protagonists interrupts the harmony of the river bank, but before any sign of them is visible or within earshot, the birds fly away, the rabbits scatter, and all the other animals flee the area. This lets us know that something or someone is coming. Steinbeck introduces to the two main protagonists. They are the described identically but it is not until Steinbeck describes their different features that we learn their differences .We don’t know their names until the dialogue starts. We will write a custom essay sample on How does Steinbeck make use of the natural setting in of mice and men or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Through their dialogue we learn that the larger man is Lennie and the smaller man is George. Both physically and character wise, George and Lennie are completely different, almost exact opposites. Lennie is not very bright, and acts like a big baby. He likes to pet soft things, he throws tantrums once in a while, and when he senses his advantage in an argument he takes that opportunity and is whiny, immature, and unrealistic about the situation. If you don want me I can go off in the hills an find a cave. I can go away any time.† George, on the other hand, is very mature, and although he gets angry and frustrated with Lennie sometimes, he always ends up feeling sorry that he was mean, and apologizes sadly. I been mean, aint I? George and Lennie are very close friends, they travel together, they stick together, and they look after each other. George and Lennie have a dream, one that theyve had for apparently quite some time. George and Lennie want to own and live in a little house of their own, with animals and vegetables and fires for the winter. They want to have their dream house, a place where they can live on their own, without worrying about anyone or anything. Steinbeck creates a setting of this dream which is used as motivation for George and Lennie but more specifically for George to keep Lennie safe. The dream links with the American Dream, what they aspire is only a microcosm of the American Dream. The whole setting of the dream is so minimal that is really nothing like the American Dream.